Toxic Treadmill

Evidence for a Poisoned Planet

Fraud, Adulteration, & Contamination in Food Products

Introduction

Many people take a glib approach to environmental concerns, instead choosing to lovingly feed their family carcinogens and health-damaging toxicants. Sometimes they change tack, especially if they develop a serious health condition, or someone close to them does. Even then, many do nothing, and change nothing about their approach to the food they consume, or the politics that enables the sale of toxic produce. Many others simply cannot afford the expense of healthier options. It would be good if this changed, but it seems unlikely. However, the sad fact is that your next meal, even fresh salad, could contain some combination of these substances and more:

A white plate of fresh salad on a table, black oily goo is seeping out from under the plate

Washing & Cooking Doesn't Eliminate Risk

The toxic soup included with food is a lot for your body to contend with, even in small amounts. Washing and cooking won't get rid of many contaminants either. Agrochemicals are often designed to resist water because growers need them to remain effective after rain or irrigation. Others enter systemically, as do heavy metals, so they are taken up internally and persist in tissue beyond the outer layer. Cooking breaks some substances down, but others will simply change into different toxicants, some more harmful than the initial compound. Many contaminants will partially, or entirely, resist thermal decomposition.

Growing Your Own in Bad Soil Won't Help

Growing your own can give you more control over what is applied to a crop, but this be bad for your health too. Soils, especially urban soils (gardens, allotments etc.), are often contaminated with heavy metals, and other elements and compounds. Some of this occurs naturally. However, a significant amount is from industrial processing, including historical activity, such as mining or the use of lead-based fuels. Other substances come from the metabolic waste of modern living; vehicle emissions, home furnishings, and litter, among other things. Rainwater can carry many contaminants too, including microplastics. Some urban gardeners have signs of serious cadmium and lead accumulation at levels way above the general population. This has potential to cause, or contribute to, many debilitating health conditions.

An Increasing Problem

Pesticide contamination of food is rising, especially for products found to contain two or more different substances. The presence of multiple agrochemicals on, or in, fruit and vegetables, has increased more than 100% since the year 2000. An analysis of more than 33 000 food products imported into the UK over the period 2000-2020 found more than 50% had detectable levels of pesticide residue, while 3.3% exceeded permitted maximum levels. The trend over time was for increased presence of residues, and a higher proportion of samples found to exceed maximum permitted levels. Fresh fruit and vegetables being among the worst offenders.

A table laid with lots of delicious food and a man in a biohazard suit spraying over the food with a fine mist

Toxic Soup

Many substances found in food are within permitted limits, but the safety tests used to set such limits are often outdated, based on inadequate exploration of potential issues, and fail to account for synergistic interactions. Taking each substance in isolation, we may be fairly robust to such low exposures. However, when we account for the multitude of toxicants, toxins, and physiological stressors we are exposed to continuously, the outlook is much more dire. Additionally, there are comparatively few studies that look at the hazardous consequences for the human microbiome, or for interfering with complex biochemical signalling pathways that in vitro cell cultures cannot be used to evaluate.

There's No Escape

Food is essential. We can't choose to avoid it completely, like we could with many other toxic products, such as cosmetics. However, fraudulent practices and contamination issues compromise food quality, safety, and authenticity. Mostly, this is economically motivated. Other causes include ignorance, accident, and malice. A lack of rigorous governance, including testing, and adequate punishment, is further confounded by opaque supply chains. International trade between nations and regions with very different standards and enforcement protocols adds to the complicated mess. As new technologies evolve for the detection of issues with food products, need and greed motivate an equal drive for innovation by unscrupulous suppliers. Issues anywhere in the world could affect you via international trade, or when you travel. Impacts include gut problems, exacerbated allergenicity, chronic illness, disability, cancer, neurological issues, and early death.

Why We Are Being Poisoned

A number of factors have contributed to the current state of our toxic food supply. Reckless 'innovation' has permitted the use of practices and chemicals that were not well understood in terms of ecological impact and detrimental health effects. Various toxicants migrate into food from packaging. Some substances introduced do not break down in the environment, and accumulate in the food chain, resulting in an increased, and persistent, presence in the human body. Population growth and economic pressures have added to the drive to produce more without accounting for long-term impacts. Some producers, and retailers, do have schemes in place to ensure the quality of their produce. However, they are not infallible, and are often operating within published guidelines which may not set an adequately high standard. Worse, crafty suppliers will dupe them, appearing to be doing all the right things on infrequent inspections, or product testing, then resorting to dubious means of widening their profit margins when backs are turned.

The Harm of Human Nature

Toxic food isn't simply about political and economic orientation. The food system itself is littered with regressive, ignorant assumptions. For example, lack of evidence of harm is not proof of safety. Yet, many people involved in science, food production, and agricultural supplies don't seem to understand this, or they don't care. It doesn't imply that you can just do whatever you want and throw caution to the wind. Greed and lack of ethics are also central to the issues faced. Focusing on technological solutions, or economic mechanisms, without addressing how problematic, and commonplace, corrupt human beings are, will only lead to an arms race in techniques of deception.

Fraud, Adulteration, & Contamination in the Global Food System: A Critical Review

A more detailed explanation of the harmful effects of human nature on your food and health. It is far from exhaustive.

Introduction

Food fraud encompasses intentional acts of substitution, addition, tampering, or misrepresentation for economic gain. Adulteration involves the addition of inferior substances to food products, while contamination may be either intentional or unintentional introduction of harmful compounds. Together, these issues create a complex landscape of food safety challenges requiring coordinated responses from industry, regulators, and consumers.

Economic Adulteration Practices

Product Substitution and Dilution

Product substitution represents one of the most prevalent forms of food fraud globally. In the edible oil sector, high-value oils like extra virgin olive oil are frequently diluted with lower-grade alternatives or entirely different vegetable oils. Hazelnut oil remains particularly problematic as its fatty acid profile closely resembles olive oil, making detection challenging without specialized testing.

Similarly, the meat industry faces widespread species substitution. Undeclared species are commonly detected in processed meat products, with particular concerns regarding religious dietary restrictions when pork is found in products marketed as halal. DNA metabarcoding studies have revealed that many sausage products contain undeclared meat species, with pork frequently substituted for more expensive meats in products marketed as premium.

In grain markets, premium varieties are commonly adulterated with lower-quality alternatives. Premium basmati rice is frequently mixed with non-basmati varieties, while commercial quinoa samples often contain undeclared millet or other less expensive grains. Even gluten-free products face adulteration challenges, with some containing gluten levels exceeding regulatory thresholds, posing serious health risks to sensitive individuals.

The fish industry demonstrates particularly high rates of species substitution, with white fish fillets commonly mislabelled. Premium species like Atlantic cod are substituted with cheaper alternatives like Alaska pollock or pangasius, while wild-caught salmon is replaced with farmed variants. This substitution extends to speciality products like red snapper and white tuna.

A man in a gloomy room shoveling sawdust into a large VAT labelled turmeric
Addition of Unauthorized Ingredients

Beyond substitution, the addition of unauthorized ingredients represents another significant concern. In processed meat products, undeclared plant-based fillers like soy protein, wheat gluten, rice flour, and starches are commonly identified. These substances typically function as cost-saving extenders but pose serious risks to consumers with food allergies.

Water binding agents like phosphates are frequently used in meat products to increase weight and improve texture. Similarly, 'meat glue' (transglutaminase) has been detected in products marketed as premium cuts, with some 'whole muscle' products showing evidence of reconstitution without proper labeling.

In dairy products, the addition of melamine to artificially increase apparent protein content represents a particularly dangerous form of adulteration. Water remains the most frequent adulterant in fluid milk, with various compounds added to mask dilution.

Geographic Origin Misrepresentation

Geographic origin fraud is found in numerous food categories, particularly products with Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) or Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) status that command premium prices. Olive oil labelled as 'Italian' frequently contains significant proportions of oils from other countries. Similar issues affect speciality oils from Greece, Spain, and organic products from smaller producers worldwide.

Honey faces widespread origin falsification, with honey from countries with lower production standards frequently relabelled as originating from regions known for premium production. DNA metabarcoding studies have identified pollen signatures inconsistent with declared origins in honey samples labelled as Manuka, Spanish, or Greek varieties. Additionally, much honey is adulterated with sugar, syrup, and fruit sugars to increase profits for producers.

Fish products commonly undergo origin misrepresentation to avoid import restrictions or command higher prices. Isotope ratio analysis has demonstrated that products labelled as originating from specific countries often have falsified origins. Similarly, trace element analysis has shown that 'Italian' pine nuts frequently originated from Chinese sources.

Biological & Chemical Contaminants in Food Products

Pesticide Residues

Modern agricultural practices have introduced concerns about pesticide residues across virtually all food categories. Detectable pesticide residues are commonly found in edible oils, meats, grains, fruits, and vegetables. While most samples fall within regulatory limits, a concerning percentage consistently exceed maximum residue limits (MRLs).

Particularly troubling is the finding that many food samples contain multiple pesticide residues simultaneously, raising questions about cumulative exposure. Organophosphates, pyrethroids, and neonicotinoids are among the most commonly detected classes of pesticides across food categories.

The problem extends to animal-derived foods through feed contamination. Dairy products show measurable pesticide residues through the transfer of compounds from feed to milk, with certain persistent pesticides bioaccumulating in milk fat. Similar concerns affect meat and egg production.

Heavy Metals and Industrial Contaminants

Heavy metal contamination affects numerous food categories, creating long-term health concerns due to bioaccumulation. Lead, cadmium, arsenic, and mercury have been detected at concerning levels in various foods, with particular issues in certain categories:

Industrial contaminants also persist throughout the food supply. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) represent a significant contamination concern in oils, particularly from regions with less stringent environmental controls. These carcinogenic compounds can enter oils through environmental contamination or improper processing methods.

Dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) continue to present challenges across numerous food categories, particularly in animal products from regions with historical industrial contamination. These compounds bioaccumulate in fatty tissues and pose long-term health risks.

Antibiotics and Growth Promoters

Antibiotic residues represent a significant food safety concern across animal-derived foods. Detectable antibiotic residues are commonly found in meat, dairy, and egg products, with a concerning percentage exceeding maximum residue limits. Tetracyclines, beta-lactams, and sulfonamides are among the most frequently detected antibiotics.

Growth promoters, including beta-agonists like ractopamine and clenbuterol, have been detected in pork and other meat products despite being banned in many jurisdictions due to human health concerns. These compounds have been linked to adverse cardiovascular effects in consumers.

The concerns extend beyond direct health impacts to broader public health issues related to antimicrobial resistance development. Foods containing antibiotic residues may contribute to the growing global crisis of antibiotic resistance.

Food Contact Materials and Packaging Contaminants

Packaging materials themselves may contribute to food contamination. Migration of compounds from packaging into food products is increasingly recognized as a potential health concern:

These compounds raise concern due to their potential endocrine-disrupting properties and other health effects, particularly for vulnerable populations like pregnant women and young children.

Several packets of food wrapped in plastic cooking in a frying pan

Processing Contaminants and Adulterants

Process-Induced Compounds

Food processing can generate harmful compounds through chemical reactions. Acrylamide formation during high-temperature cooking of starchy foods represents a significant concern, particularly in potato products, coffee, and baked goods. Studies have found acrylamide concentrations in some products significantly exceeding regulatory benchmarks.

Thermal processing of protein-rich foods can generate heterocyclic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons with potential carcinogenic properties. These compounds have been identified in various cooked meat products and even in some canned fish products.

Illegal Colorants and Additives

Unauthorized colourants represent a persistent safety concern across multiple food categories. Sudan dyes, Rhodamine B, and other industrial colourants prohibited in food continue to appear in various products:

Many of these compounds have demonstrated carcinogenic or allergenic properties, making their presence in food particularly concerning.

Preservation and Enhancement Chemicals

Unauthorized preservatives have been detected across numerous food categories. Formaldehyde, hydrogen peroxide, and boric acid have been found in dairy products despite being prohibited in most jurisdictions. Excessive levels of permitted preservatives, including benzoates and sorbates, have been documented in various processed foods.

Carbon monoxide treatment to maintain red meat coloration has been documented in markets where the practice is prohibited. This treatment allows retailers to mask spoilage and extend apparent shelf life beyond safe limits, potentially exposing consumers to microbial risks.

Microbiological Hazards and Food Safety Fraud

Pathogen Contamination

Despite modern food safety systems, microbiological contamination remains a significant concern. Pathogens like Salmonella, Listeria monocytogenes, and Escherichia coli continue to cause foodborne illness outbreaks across various food categories.

Fresh produce has been implicated in numerous outbreaks, with water quality responsible for much of the detected pathogen contamination. Meat and dairy products face contamination risks throughout processing, while low-moisture foods like spices and nuts, once thought relatively safe, have been linked to significant outbreaks.

Record Falsification and Fraud

Food safety fraud involving falsification of records and certifications contributes to microbial risks. Documentation fraud related to microbial control measures has been detected in processing facilities across multiple food categories. Falsification of pasteurization and sterilization records represents a prevalent form of food safety fraud in food manufacturing.

Date falsification represents another widespread fraudulent practice. Expiration or 'best before' dates are manipulated or fraudulently extended across numerous food categories, increasing the risk of spoilage, quality degradation, and potential microbial growth in products stored beyond their actual shelf life.

Emerging Contaminants and Novel Concerns

Microplastics

Microplastics have emerged as a significant contaminant across the food supply. These particles have been detected in fish, shellfish, salt, honey, beer, and even bottled water. Marine foods show particularly high contamination rates, with fish from polluted coastal environments containing higher concentrations than those from open ocean environments.

The human health implications of microplastic exposure remain under investigation, but preliminary evidence suggests potential physical and chemical toxicity concerns due to both the particles themselves and the chemical additives they contain.

Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS)

PFAS contamination represents an emerging concern across multiple food categories. These persistent 'forever chemicals' have been detected in fish, dairy products, and foods packaged in grease-resistant materials. Particularly high concentrations have been found in freshwater fish and in eggs from areas near industrial facilities.

PFAS compounds have been linked to various adverse health effects, including immune dysfunction, hormonal disruption, and cancer. Their extreme persistence in both the environment and human body makes them a priority concern for food safety monitoring.

Engineered Nanomaterials

The intentional addition of engineered nanomaterials to improve product characteristics represents an emerging concern. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles have been identified in food coatings used to enhance visual appeal, while silver nanoparticles are sometimes used for antimicrobial properties.

Regulatory frameworks often lag behind such innovations, creating uncertainties about safety and appropriate monitoring approaches. The unique properties of nanomaterials may create novel toxicity concerns not addressed by conventional safety assessment approaches.

Radiation Contamination in the Food Supply

Nuclear Accidents and Food Chain Impacts

Major nuclear accidents have caused significant, long-lasting impacts on food systems. The 1986 Chernobyl disaster released substantial amounts of radioactive materials, particularly cesium-137 and iodine-131, that contaminated agricultural areas across Europe. In the UK, restrictions on sheep farming in certain upland areas remained in place for decades after the accident due to persistent caesium contamination in pastures. Some areas continued to show elevated radiation levels in products like mushrooms and game meat nearly 30 years after the incident.

A field of sheep near a lake, the wool on their backs is glowing luminous green

The 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in Japan created similar concerns about food contamination. Radioactive materials released during the accident contaminated soils, water, and agricultural products in surrounding areas. Japanese authorities implemented extensive monitoring systems and strict limits for radionuclides in food products. Certain food categories, particularly fish and seafood, mushrooms, wild game, and dairy products from affected regions, required rigorous testing before market release. Multiple food sources have been found contaminated with radioactive substances traceable to the incident, although relatively few contained levels above regulatory limits. However, as a precaution, some countries maintained import restrictions on Japanese food products for many years after the accident.

Long-term Monitoring and Management

The persistence of radionuclides in the environment necessitates long-term monitoring of food supplies. Caesium-137, with its half-life of approximately 30 years, can remain in agricultural ecosystems for generations. In dairy farming, the transfer of radionuclides from contaminated pasture to milk creates particular concerns due to the rapid consumption pathway and importance of dairy in many diets, especially for children.

Remediation strategies have included application of potassium fertilizers to reduce cesium uptake by plants, deep ploughing to bury contaminated surface soil, and use of feed additives like Prussian blue to reduce radionuclide absorption in livestock. Despite these efforts, certain agricultural areas remain vulnerable to radiation contamination, underscoring the long-lasting impacts of nuclear accidents on food security and safety.

Governance and Regulatory Responses

International Approaches to Food Fraud

Several countries and regions have implemented innovative approaches to combat food fraud and contamination. The European Union has established one of the most comprehensive regulatory frameworks through the EU Food Fraud Network, which facilitates cross-border cooperation and information sharing. The system enables rapid response to emerging threats and coordinated enforcement actions across member states.

China has implemented a licensing system for food producers that includes strict penalties for fraudulent practices. Following several high-profile food safety scandals, Chinese authorities instituted reforms that include a food producer credit system, where companies with violations face restrictions on future operations. Penalties for serious food fraud cases now include substantial fines based on percentage of revenue rather than fixed amounts, creating stronger deterrent effects.

Denmark has pioneered a risk-based inspection system. Food businesses receive 'smiley' ratings that must be prominently displayed for consumers. This transparency increases consumer awareness while creating market incentives for compliance. Companies with poor ratings face more frequent inspections and potential business impacts from consumer avoidance.

Penalties and Enforcement

Some jurisdictions have moved toward treating serious food fraud as criminal rather than civil violations. Italy, with its strong food heritage, has implemented some of the most stringent penalties for food fraud, particularly for protected designation products. Individuals found guilty of serious food fraud can face imprisonment in addition to substantial financial penalties.

The United Kingdom has established a dedicated National Food Crime Unit within the Food Standards Agency, treating food fraud as a criminal enterprise rather than merely a regulatory violation. This approach allows for more sophisticated investigative techniques and stronger penalties for organized criminal activity in the food sector.

Canada has implemented a licensing requirement for food importers that increases accountability throughout the supply chain. Companies must demonstrate due diligence in their sourcing practices or face licence suspension or revocation, effectively preventing them from continuing operations.

Technology and Traceability

Blockchain technology is being implemented across various food sectors to enhance traceability. Several major retailers now require blockchain documentation for certain high-risk products, creating immutable records that can quickly trace contamination sources or verify product claims.

DNA barcoding and metabarcoding technologies have revolutionized authentication capabilities, particularly for species identification in complex or processed products. These technologies are increasingly deployed by regulatory agencies for market surveillance and fraud detection.

Portable, rapid-testing technologies have democratized testing capabilities throughout supply chains. Handheld spectroscopic devices can identify key adulterants in field conditions, enabling more frequent and distributed monitoring.

Conclusion: Challenges and Future Directions

Food fraud, adulteration, and contamination remain persistent challenges despite regulatory efforts and technological advances. The economic incentives for fraud, coupled with the complexity of global supply chains, create vulnerabilities that require coordinated responses across multiple stakeholders.

Several key trends emerge from this review:

Addressing these challenges requires integrated approaches combining improved traceability systems, advanced detection technologies, stronger regulatory enforcement, and greater consumer education. While perfect elimination of fraud and contamination may be impossible in a global food system, significant improvements are achievable through coordinated efforts and continued investment in food safety infrastructure.

The most promising path forward includes international harmonization of standards and testing protocols, criminal prosecution of organized food fraud, implementation of blockchain and other traceability technologies, and development of rapid, accessible testing methods that can be deployed throughout supply chains. With these combined approaches, the integrity and safety of the global food supply could be substantially improved, protecting both consumers and legitimate businesses. However, the rapid toxification of all aspects of the environment, worsening economic pressures, increased global conflict, poor educational standards, and selfish, ignorant, and egotistical people, make it difficult.

References

Abedini, A., Salimi, M., Mazaheri, Y., Sadighara, P., Sani, M. A., Assadpour, E., & Jafari, S. M. (2023). Assessment of cheese frauds, and relevant detection methods: A systematic review. Food Chemistry: X, 19, 100825.

Alamri, M. S., Qasem, A. A., Mohamed, A. A., Hussain, S., Ibraheem, M. A., Shamlan, G., ... & Qasha, A. S. (2021). Food packaging’s materials: A food safety perspective. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 28(8), 4490-4499.

Arp, H. P. H., Gredelj, A., Glüge, J., Scheringer, M., & Cousins, I. T. (2024). The global threat from the irreversible accumulation of trifluoroacetic acid (TFA). Environmental Science & Technology, 58(45), 19925-19935.

Bennett, S. D., Sodha, S. V., Ayers, T. L., & Lynch, M. F. (2018). Produce-associated foodborne disease outbreaks, USA, 1998–2013. Epidemiology & Infection, 146(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095026881700213X

Beresford, N. A., Fesenko, S., Konoplev, A., Skuterud, L., Smith, J. T., & Voigt, G. (2016). Thirty years after the Chernobyl accident: What lessons have we learnt?. Journal of environmental radioactivity, 157, 77-89.

Bintsis, T. (2018). Microbial pollution and food safety. AIMS microbiology, 4(3), 377.

Callejón, R. M., Rodríguez-Naranjo, M. I., Ubeda, C., Hornedo-Ortega, R., Garcia-Parrilla, M. C., & Troncoso, A. M. (2015). Reported foodborne outbreaks due to fresh produce in the United States and European Union: trends and causes. Foodborne pathogens and disease, 12(1), 32-38.

Cao, S., Wang, S., Zhao, Y., Wang, L., Ma, Y., Schäffer, A., & Ji, R. (2020). Fate of bisphenol S (BPS) and characterization of non-extractable residues in soil: Insights into persistence of BPS. Environment International, 143, 105908.

Claydon, S. (2022, November 2). Half of bread contains pesticide cocktails (plus download the “Dirty Dozen”) - Pesticide Action Network UK. Pesticide Action Network UK. https://www.pan-uk.org/half-of-bread-contains-pesticide-cocktails-plus-download-the-dirty-dozen

Crispo, M., Dobson, M. C., Blevins, R. S., Meredith, W., Lake, J. A., & Edmondson, J. L. (2021). Heavy metals and metalloids concentrations across UK urban horticultural soils and the factors influencing their bioavailability to food crops. Environmental pollution, 288, 117960.

Ćwieląg-Drabek, M., Piekut, A., Gut, K., & Grabowski, M. (2020). Risk of cadmium, lead and zinc exposure from consumption of vegetables produced in areas with mining and smelting past. Scientific reports, 10(1), 3363.

Fernando, I., Fei, J., Cahoon, S., & Close, D. C. (2024). A review of the emerging technologies and systems to mitigate food fraud in supply chains. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 1-28.

Flamminii, F., Minetti, S., Mollica, A., Cichelli, A., & Cerretani, L. (2023). The effect of washing, blanching and frozen storage on pesticide residue in spinach. Foods, 12(14), 2806.

Gustafson, C. R., Champetier, A., Tuyizere, O., & Gitungwa, H. (2024). The impact of honey fraud information on the valuation of honey origin: Evidence from an incentivized economic experiment. Food Control, 155, 110070.

Gwenzi, W., Makuvara, Z., Marumure, J., Simbanegavi, T. T., Mukonza, S. S., & Chaukura, N. (2023). Chicanery in the food supply chain! Food fraud, mitigation, and research needs in low-income countries. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 136, 194-223.

Haji, A., Desalegn, K., & Hassen, H. (2023). Selected food items adulteration, their impacts on public health, and detection methods: A review. Food Science & Nutrition, 11(12), 7534-7545.

Hulisz, P., Loba, A., Chabowski, M., Kujawiak, K., Koźniewski, B., Charzyński, P., & Kim, K. H. J. (2024). Microplastic contamination in soils of urban allotment gardens (Toruń, Poland). Journal of Soils and Sediments, 1-12.

Islam, M. S., Jhily, N. J., Parvin, N., Shampad, M. M. H., Hossain, J., Sarkar, S. C., ... & Islam, M. A. (2022). Dreadful practices of adulteration in food items and their worrisome consequences for public health: A review. Journal of Food Safety and Hygiene, 8(4), 223-236.

Janecko, N., Zamudio, R., Palau, R., Bloomfield, S. J., & Mather, A. E. (2023). Repeated cross-sectional study identifies differing risk factors associated with microbial contamination in common food products in the United Kingdom. Food Microbiology, 111, 104196.

Lawrence, S., Elliott, C., Huisman, W., Dean, M., & van Ruth, S. (2024). Food fraud threats in UK post-harvest seafood supply chains; an assessment of current vulnerabilities. npj Science of Food, 8(1), 30.

Merz, S., Shozugawa, K., & Steinhauser, G. (2015). Analysis of Japanese radionuclide monitoring data of food before and after the Fukushima nuclear accident. Environmental science & technology, 49(5), 2875-2885.

Munir, N., Jahangeer, M., Bouyahya, A., El Omari, N., Ghchime, R., Balahbib, A., ... & Shariati, M. A. (2021). Heavy metal contamination of natural foods is a serious health issue: A review. Sustainability, 14(1), 161.

PAN Europe. (2022). Forbidden fruit The dramatic rise in the most toxic pesticides found on fruits and vegetables sold in Europe and evidence that governments are failing their legal obligations. In Pesticide Action Network Europe. https://www.pan-europe.info/sites/pan-europe.info/files/public/resources/reports/ForbiddenFruit_01.pdf

PAN Europe. (2022). Pesticide Atlas 2022: Facts and figures about toxic chemicals in agriculture. https://www.pan-europe.info/sites/pan-europe.info/files/public/resources/reports/PesticideAtlas2022_Web_20221010.pdf

Petit, J. C., Maggi, P., Pirard, C., Charlier, C., Ruttens, A., Liénard, A., ... & Remy, S. (2022). Human biomonitoring survey (Pb, Cd, As, Cu, Zn, Mo) for urban gardeners exposed to metal contaminated soils. Environmental Pollution, 312, 120028.

Poláková, K., Bobková, A., Demianová, A., Bobko, M., Jurčaga, L., Mesárošová, A., ... & Čeryová, N. (2024). Adulteration in food industry in 2023-overview. Journal of microbiology, biotechnology and food sciences, 13(6), e11048-e11048.

Rigby, H., Dowding, A., Fernandes, A., Humphries, D., Jones, N. R., Lake, I., ... & Smith, S. R. (2021). Concentrations of organic contaminants in industrial and municipal bioresources recycled in agriculture in the UK. Science of the Total Environment, 765, 142787.

Sergent, T., Ribonnet, L., Kolosova, A., Garsou, S., Schaut, A., De Saeger, S., ... & Schneider, Y. J. (2008). Molecular and cellular effects of food contaminants and secondary plant components and their plausible interactions at the intestinal level. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 46(3), 813-841.

Smith, J. T., Comans, R. N. J., Beresford, N. A., Wright, S. M., Howard, B. J., & Camplin, W. C. (2000). Chernobyl's legacy in food and water. Nature, 405(6783), 141-141.

Uddin, M. M., Zakeel, M. C. M., Zavahir, J. S., Marikar, F. M., & Jahan, I. (2021). Heavy metal accumulation in rice and aquatic plants used as human food: A general review. Toxics, 9(12), 360.

Yang, T., Doherty, J., Zhao, B., Kinchla, A. J., Clark, J. M., & He, L. (2017). Effectiveness of commercial and homemade washing agents in removing pesticide residues on and in apples. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 65(44), 9744-9752.

Yigit, N., & Velioglu, Y. S. (2020). Effects of processing and storage on pesticide residues in foods. Critical reviews in food science and nutrition, 60(21), 3622-3641.

Zwolak, A., Sarzyńska, M., Szpyrka, E., & Stawarczyk, K. (2019). Sources of soil pollution by heavy metals and their accumulation in vegetables: A review. Water, air, & soil pollution, 230, 1-9.
Toxic Treadmill Home >>>