Toxic Treadmill

Physical Harms Caused by Fashion

Clothes are often considered harmless. Many consumers stuff their cupboards full, stockpiling as many garments and pairs of footwear as they can. Driven by economic motives, the global textile industry is always keen to fuel more demand, producing billions of garments annually. It has become an integral part of human culture and commerce. However, innumerable biological harms arise from the use of clothing and footwear. Such hazards arise via chemical exposure to toxic dyes, microfibres and associated dust, waterproofing agents, antimicrobial and antifungal treatments, and the environmental degradation processes that occur during washing, drying, and post‐consumer disposal. Persistent agents include illegal ingredients and fraudulent substitutes.

Footwear, clothing, and accessories, undergo extensive chemical processing during production to meet consumer demands and regulatory standards. These processes include dyeing, ensuring color fastness, adding anti-bacterial and anti-fungal properties, water repellency and waterproofing, crease-resistance, and stain resistance. Many of the chemicals used are not only acutely toxic but persist in the environment, bioaccumulate, and continue to be released during washing, wearing, drying, and disposal phases. In addition, microfibres released from textiles during use and laundering constitute a non-biodegradable pollutant that enters indoor and outdoor ecosystems. The persistence of the chemicals in the environment results in long-term exposure risks through various pathways including dermal contact, inhalation of dust and microfibres, and indirect ingestion via contaminated food and water. Adverse health effects associated with these exposures have been linked with chronic respiratory conditions, endocrine disruption, carcinogenicity, neurotoxicity, and even terminal diseases.

Toxic Dyes and Chemical Additives

Chemical Composition and Toxicity

Textile dyes, particularly azo dyes, account for a large percentage of the chemicals used in textile coloration. The degradation of these dyes can yield toxic aromatic amines and other compounds that have been implicated in genotoxicity and carcinogenicity. Toxic dyes may contain heavy metals such as lead, arsenic, chromium, and cadmium, which not only cause acute skin irritation and allergic reactions but are also associated with chronic systemic diseases when exposure is prolonged. Moreover, reactive dyes used on cellulose fibers require high salt concentrations during processing, contributing further to water pollution and bioaccumulation of hazardous substances.

Exposure Routes and Chronic Health Effects

Exposure to toxic dyes occurs via direct skin contact through prolonged garment use, contact with dye residues on fabrics, and indirectly through contaminated dust. Certain dyes and their byproducts persist in the environment, leading to repeated human exposure and potential bioaccumulation in tissues. Chronic exposures to these dyes have been linked to endocrine disruption, immune dysfunction, and an increased risk of cancers and other terminal diseases.

Microfibres and Their Associated Chemical Contaminants

Microfibre Release and Environmental Persistence

Microfibres, defined as particles smaller than 5 mm released from synthetic textiles or functionalized fabrics, have emerged as significant environmental contaminants. Every cycle of use and washing contributes to the release of microfibres that can persist in environmental matrices, indoor air, and dust. These microfibres often contain embedded additives such as toxic dyes, plasticizers, and flame retardants, which exacerbate their hazardous potential.

Routes of Exposure and Bioaccumulation

Human exposure to microfibres occurs primarily through inhalation of dust (which may contain microfibres laden with toxic chemicals), ingestion via contaminated food or water, and dermal contact with treated fabrics. Studies have revealed that microplastics, and by extension microfibres, have been detected in human stool samples and even in placental tissues, indicating that they can infiltrate biological systems and persist over long periods. The bioaccumulative potential is particularly alarming given that these particles may act as vectors for additional toxic compounds such as antifouling agents and persistent organic pollutants.

Waterproofing Agents and Surface Treatments

Nature and Utility of Waterproofing Chemicals

Waterproofing agents are widely applied to textiles to confer water repellent and stain-resistant properties. Many of these agents are based on per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), colloquially known as “forever chemicals” due to their strong carbon–fluorine bonds, which result in high persistence and bioaccumulation. These substances are used extensively in the manufacture of outdoor gear, military, and protective clothing, as well as in general consumer apparel.

Environmental and Health Risks

Exposure to PFAS occurs via multiple routes including direct skin contact with treated fabrics, inhalation of dust particles contaminated with PFAS, and environmental contamination following garment disposal. The persistent nature of PFAS means that trace amounts can accumulate in human tissues over years. Health effects associated with PFAS exposure include endocrine disruption, immune system impairment, developmental neurotoxicity, liver and cardiovascular disease, and increased cancer risk. Recycling and disposal of PFAS-treated garments further compound this issue, as chemical treatments can be released during mechanical processing, directly introducing harmful substances into wastewater streams and terrestrial environments.

Antimicrobial and Antifungal Textile Treatments

Efficacy and Chemical Concerns

Antimicrobial and antifungal treatments are applied to textiles to inhibit the growth of bacteria and fungi, thereby extending product lifespan and preventing malodor. However, many of these treatments involve the use of halogenated compounds, triclosan, and other biocidal agents that have been implicated in disrupting both microbial ecology and human metabolic pathways. Although these treatments provide immediate performance benefits, their chemical constituents can be inherently toxic, leading to adverse health effects over prolonged exposure.

Chronic Exposure and Pathological Impacts

Persistent use of antimicrobial agents in clothing has been linked to chronic health issues such as endocrine disruption, allergic contact dermatitis, and potential neurotoxicity due to complex interactions with human cells. The biocidal compounds may also contribute to the selection of resistant microbial strains, thereby altering the natural flora and possibly exacerbating human immune dysfunction. Such impacts are particularly concerning in garments that are in continuous contact with the skin, such as underwear, socks, and athletic apparel.

Environmental Degradation and the Fate of Discarded Textiles

Post-Consumer Exposure and Recycling Challenges

The end-of-life stage of clothing and footwear is a critical aspect of their environmental impact. Textile waste contributes to persistent pollution due to incomplete recycling processes and the leaching of hazardous chemicals from discarded garments. Garment disposal in landfills leads to continuous release of toxic substances into soil and groundwater, while incineration may generate toxic emissions if not properly controlled.

Bioaccumulation in Ecosystems

The persistence of textile-associated chemicals in the environment results in bioaccumulation across food webs. Microfibres shed from textiles are not only persistent in environmental matrices but may also adsorb additional toxicants, which can further magnify the risk of exposure. As these compounds accumulate in plants, animals, and eventually humans, they contribute to chronic diseases through a slow, cumulative toxic load. The dynamic process of degradation and chemical release continues long after the functional life of garments, demonstrating that the issue is not limited to active product use but extends into long-term environmental health.

Illegal Ingredients and Fraudulent Substitutes

Market Regulation and Non-Compliance Issues

Despite regulatory efforts to ban or limit the use of certain hazardous chemicals in textiles, market studies and clinical trial searches continue to find evidence of illegal ingredients and fraudulent substitutes in products still widely available. The presence of banned substances or unapproved substitutes in textiles exposes consumers to unknown and potentially more harmful chemical profiles. Such products may not only contain persistent toxic chemicals but can also exacerbate health risks due to poor regulation and inadequate labeling practices.

Health Implications of Unregulated Chemicals

Illegal dyes and fraudulent substitutes, including compounds that mimic banned PFAS or toxic dyes, increase the potential for acute and chronic toxic exposures. Such substances are often poorly studied, and their toxicokinetics in humans remain uncertain, leaving significant gaps in risk assessment. Given their potential to bioaccumulate and interact synergistically with other chemicals present on textiles, they pose a compounded risk for developing chronic conditions such as endocrine disorders, neurotoxicity, and even terminal diseases such as cancer.

Mechanisms of Toxicity and Biological Impacts

Oxidative Stress and Inflammation

A recurring mechanism underlying the toxicity of textile chemicals is the induction of oxidative stress. Many toxic dyes, PFAS, and antimicrobial agents trigger the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), overwhelming cellular antioxidant defenses. This imbalance precipitates chronic inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and cellular damage that are precursors to various chronic diseases. The cumulative oxidative burden may eventually lead to genetic mutations, apoptosis, and other forms of cellular damage that are directly implicated in carcinogenesis and neurodegenerative disorders.

Endocrine Disruption and Metabolic Dysregulation

Another significant pathway is endocrine disruption, where chemicals leached from textiles interfere with hormone receptors and synthesis. Persistent compounds such as PFAS and certain azo dye derivatives bind to serum proteins and hormone receptors, disrupting normal endocrine function. This interference may alter metabolic processes, reproductive hormone balance, and developmental signaling in children, subsequently increasing the risk of metabolic syndromes, thyroid disorders, and reproductive abnormalities.

Cellular and Genetic Damage

Direct cellular toxicity is evident with exposure to nano-sized particles and microfibres that are small enough to be internalized by cells. In vitro studies have demonstrated that these particles disrupt cellular membranes, impair lysosomal functions, and trigger apoptotic pathways in key cell types such as lung epithelial cells and macrophages. The chronic presence of these particles, coupled with leached chemical additives, can result in cumulative genetic damage and inhibit effective cellular repair mechanisms, thereby contributing to the progression of chronic and terminal diseases.

Occupational and Domestic Exposure Considerations

Occupational Risks in Textile Production

Workers in textile factories are exposed to higher concentrations of airborne microfibres, volatile organic compounds, and heavy metals due to the high intensity of chemical processing. Chronic inhalation of dust containing these toxic substances has been associated with respiratory conditions, interstitial lung disease, and even granulomatous lesions. Occupational studies have thus shown that the textile production line represents a high-risk avenue for cumulative exposure, warranting robust industrial hygiene practices and exposure reduction measures.

Domestic Exposure Through Product Use

For the general population, domestic exposure arises from routine wearing and laundering of treated textiles. Indoor dust contaminated with microfibres and chemicals from clothing and footwear constitutes a significant source of exposure, especially for vulnerable populations such as infants and the elderly. Estimates indicate that repeated exposure to such dust can lead to low-dose, chronic exposure that may predispose individuals to inflammation, allergic reactions, and long-term systemic effects.

Regulatory Responses and Mitigation Strategies

Current Regulation

Global and regional regulations, such as those enacted by the European Union and the Stockholm Convention, have targeted specific hazardous chemicals such as legacy PFAS, certain brominated flame retardants, and specific toxic azo dyes. However, despite these regulatory efforts, compliance remains challenging. Some manufacturers ignore their legal responsibilities and continue to use banned products, others resort to illegal substitutes and fraudulent formulations that mimic the properties of banned chemicals without undergoing proper safety assessments. Wholesalers and retailers may import products from regions or countries where legislation is slack, or unenforced, without checking whether the products adhere to regulations in the country of sale.

Exposure Reduction

Mitigation of textile-related toxic exposures includes the development of safer dyeing techniques, the use of eco-friendly and biodegradable finishing agents, and the improvement of wastewater treatment processes to capture and remediate shed microfibres and chemical leachates. Advances in fabric recycling technologies that minimize the carry-over of hazardous chemicals into new products are also critical. Moreover, consumer awareness and regulatory enforcement must be strengthened to discourage the use of illegal and unregulated substitutes.

Knowledge Gaps

There is a significant deficit in our understanding of chronic exposure pathways and mechanistic toxicology related to textile chemicals. It may be the case that they do more harm than we are currently aware of. Future research would be needed for more effective regulation and enforcement, including standardized detection methods for microfibres, advanced analytical techniques to track chemical transformation in textiles over their lifecycles, and epidemiological studies to definitively link exposure with chronic and terminal health outcomes. Analysing population exposure could be challenging given the ubiquitous proliferation of modern textiles throughout the globe. However, investigations into dermal absorption rates, inhalation toxicokinetics, and in vitro cellular models could be helpful in guiding regulatory reforms.

Summary

Clothing and footwear aren't things we can do without. However, they're also vectors for a complex mixture of toxic chemicals and microfibres that pose significant, multifaceted risks to human health. Multiple mechanisms are involved, including direct toxicity from embedded chemicals, indirect effects via environmental persistence and bioaccumulation, as well as chronic exposures that can lead to systemic inflammation, endocrine disruption, and genetic damage. In addition, the dynamic nature of chemical release from textiles during laundering, friction during use, or after products are discarded, amplifies the potential for both acute and cumulative health harms. Evidence indicates that the totality of exposure from these products encompasses multiple pathways: inhalation of contaminated dust, dermal absorption from prolonged contact, and ingestion via the food chain, each contributing to a persistent toxic burden that may escalate into chronic conditions and terminal diseases.

The economic and social dimensions of the textile industry further complicate the ability to eliminate these hazards. Fast fashion and mass production have led to increased use of problematic chemicals in order to reduce cost and enhance competitiveness. This production milieu, coupled with a throw-away culture, ensures that significant volumes of chemically treated textiles continue to be released into the environment with every laundering cycle and via post-consumer waste. Disposal doesn't make things disappear. The chemicals persist in landfills, and many will eventually re-enter biotic systems through water and soil. Recycling fibres doesn't necessarily mean that the dyes, and other chemicals, will be dealt with in a non-harmful way.

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